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第二本比较新 06年出的
- C6 s) z" |6 U/ d1 oCONTRIBUTORS xvii+ e1 G" ^3 x. R
FOREWORD xix
e9 t* Q. q% SPREFACE xxi
( L- p. g+ y- s: {* l& QACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii
6 ]3 O) ~4 s1 Y5 V. k: D7 CABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv) b$ H- y( O N8 v4 F
1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY 1. \! H' _/ X# x& m
1.1 Introduction 1
' L! h' ^2 n' K) r1 \1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 27 ^2 v8 f/ T" P6 ~) J" H
1.3 Renewable Energy Versus Alternative Energy 4
2 Y) L/ l- ]0 K5 ?8 y) K# P' g; j1.4 Planning and Development of Integrated Energy 8# ^( W8 D9 d8 S$ O+ b+ `
1.4.1 Grid-Supplied Electricity 9' D& T6 P9 W3 h3 O) r& r: x7 p8 E9 U
1.4.2 Load 10
~; r7 {+ a; m- }% d. h% M$ J: X! _1.4.3 Distributed Generation 10
) E0 }# y! @% c% v& Z1 w, ?1.5 Renewable Energy Economics 11
4 k1 L* F$ |. Z1 U1 |9 m1.5.1 Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs 12
; f2 z/ y( x& h% Y1.6 European Targets for Renewables 141 ^* w" q% @0 W2 i
1.6.1 Demand-Side Management Options 15* d m+ V" S6 O. P: k( x- r
1.6.2 Supply-Side Management Options 16
( C' M, y/ ?8 D* w3 H1.7 Integration of Renewable Energy Sources 19( P+ q- e1 K" c: }5 j3 D, o& p* O
1.7.1 Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States 20
. d5 U+ g+ B6 Y. m, T: \1.7.2 Energy Recovery Time 21
* A$ I" c6 H4 J! i _' z1.7.3 Sustainability 235 R7 T: k, X2 l
1.8 Modern Electronic Controls of Power Systems 26
. S2 Z0 R7 g4 K; D) o, V( oReferences 27/ G( ^( a& P( X4 A, j
2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 28
2 A5 m+ r1 \ e: v2.1. Introduction 28+ d9 A2 t K$ Q( H, O+ i. [9 P4 m( Z
2.2. State of a Thermodynamic System 29
2 K3 K. K: I6 X d r2.3. Fundamental Laws and Principles 369 h# T3 B6 i5 ^1 @5 e0 A
2.3.1 Example in a Nutshell 370 r4 a L, w X, h, |1 o
2.3.2 Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant 40* r! S( j! Z) F& g6 @
2.3.3 Rankine Cycle for Power Plants 41
5 ^! Z& y" {8 z& E8 ]* `3 U2.3.4 Brayton Cycle for Power Plants 44% ^, V1 j; W0 m. @# p4 _
2.3.5 Energy and Power 46& z1 F! T" }; Q) N( r! l
2.4 Examples of Energy Balance 47& ]! P8 l4 @1 a, m6 c9 h
2.4.1 Simple Residential Energy Balance 478 ?- ~0 A* {2 A1 ?7 g% A
2.4.2 Refrigerator Energy Balance 48
, t: x# K3 M% G* ?, b2.4.3 Energy Balance for a Water Heater 49) Y$ [6 @. G# A) n$ c
2.4.4 Rock Bed Energy Balance 51, M4 R) a3 `! }2 c' t5 \
2.4.5 Array of Solar Collectors 51% Y5 n/ K1 {8 h8 t! h) g4 E4 N8 T" O
2.4.6 Heat Pump 52
+ p) z3 r* y& |! E2 u% {2.4.7 Heat Transfer Analysis 53
# b2 u: ], \. l2.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 54
R& T. f: S/ W% J9 AReferences 56
. ^% ?" W7 m3 ~3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 57
8 Q2 N6 j; J0 Q* ]3.1 Introduction 57
+ D0 O' V* E' I1 J3.2 Determination of the Useful Power 58% _! d' L O# F" X; z
3.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements 60
' L# Z6 d2 y% ~5 x* e3 n- J! N! G3.3.1 Simple Measurement of Elevation 601 J( [/ m2 y- e; B) z0 c2 v
3.3.2 Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement 60( N$ d% v1 ? ?0 v0 E: O
3.3.3 Specification of Pipe Losses 628 R: P2 E! I H0 U8 c9 i
3.3.4 Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow 63( z/ c i2 } C" Y; V
3.3.5 Civil Works 677 T6 }8 N' V6 u/ s
3.4 Generating Unit 67
: r- y) |, K% g* a3.4.1 Regulation Systems 67
. {! I; o$ i) H+ e7 @" B5 K3.4.2 Butterfly Valves 68; J) e% y* b0 m3 _
3.5 Waterwheels 68
3 p& m! Y! s, S& B3.6 Turbines 70
, {/ N7 S+ Z, @+ F5 r4 ]. G3.6.1 Pelton Turbine 71 [6 _# h- P1 w$ I" Q
3.6.2 Francis Turbine 74
3 }6 R9 Z% z" p7 d0 E4 Z+ d3.6.3 Michel–Banki Turbine 77
, H- R3 j% p# k6 a4 A9 V' \3.6.4 Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine 79
3 d* i) ~$ B6 Y4 R3.6.5 Deriaz Turbines 80
) W$ {( K( [6 Y, A7 m$ t& g$ s. }3.6.6 Water Pumps Working as Turbines 80
+ H8 f* K1 \5 R$ E3.6.7 Specification of Hydro Turbines 818 W, k" t4 I8 \$ I
References 82. o3 s% h; s8 C+ Y# o4 p I
4 WIND POWER PLANTS 84( ]& V. `$ C* R' n1 }! H" [2 G' S
4.1 Introduction 84/ p& \! e/ {1 v, C. K" a* S
4.2 Appropriate Location 85; ?/ m7 Z; @8 s& s( X1 w4 w
4.2.1 Evaluation of Wind Intensity 85
% I' \ \" w) U4.2.2 Topography 939 c3 b4 l8 Y" ]3 ?4 ]
4.2.3 Purpose of the Energy Generated 95& G0 X% `: T' A4 I
4.2.4 Means of Access 95
) Y6 L! N( {, A" c4.3 Wind Power 95
/ R( k4 w8 n& `8 K/ T* P( I" v5 y) i- y: j4.4 General Classification of Wind Turbines 97
- y+ h6 K/ B! D. q0 r6 m4.4.1 Rotor Turbines 99
" Y* V0 j w9 g$ Z4.4.2 Multiple-Blade Turbines 99
) a) |% x( ^* G0 y% F2 `4.4.3 Drag Turbines (Savonius) 100
! f- f" m( F+ {* L9 r- U" J4.4.4 Lifting Turbines 1018 j# N1 o! S' a3 B& s$ O" v4 A8 q
4.4.5 System TARP–WARP 102
! r# C$ V, T' |( p6 {% W4.4.6 Accessories 1039 T2 H ~3 i' j. Z1 E( Y9 G
4.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy 1048 ~! i! w/ P: a0 b- A. D
4.6 Analysis of Small Generating Systems 107
& c; l* O6 ?5 ^' u: M& r: xReferences 110 ^7 J8 v$ d& n, p+ M
5 THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS 112. ]$ O2 _1 n1 `6 B: [8 q
5.1 Introduction 112
+ I! v8 Y: v$ c( a% P: K5.2 Water Heating by Solar Energy 112
) t* R' F; k% b( V$ z8 a% |) T5.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs 1157 e1 J- ]! Q8 `' @: A3 {
5.4 Heating Domestic Water 118- F+ r3 z1 S9 P/ N7 Y [
5.5 Thermosolar Energy 1199 I( i, t" Y# m$ r8 o8 U
5.5.1 Parabolic Trough 120 ~, f7 z' p; V; K
5.5.2 Parabolic Dish 1228 X) m3 V2 W* o& _- ^
5.5.3 Solar Power Tower 124/ ^' j8 p+ h6 o' y
5.5.4 Production of Hydrogen 125
3 L! }3 W6 Z7 y/ e% o4 t; r% w$ O5.6 Economical Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 126
3 v; ?9 y8 ~' p( L8 \4 A6 NReferences 127* q! N+ R! c* q
CONTENTS ix6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS 129( v5 ?, S* k4 o$ t
6.1 Introduction 129
- f" c: A1 X7 I% a* a$ h6 b+ Y6.2 Solar Energy 130
* l0 U0 K3 m% L, c9 j8 O7 A T" M. K6.3 Generation of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 132
" g. w" E d9 A# H6.4 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature 135 z" i; O; O M4 l
6.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 137' v, ~6 j4 z$ e: z. T& y* S* V
6.6 Equivalent Models and Parameters for Photovoltaic Panels 139
6 H2 t# a0 i! n" @+ x6.6.1 Dark-Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel 140
; j- B) s; U& k- r, P f* \" `( S e! w6.6.2 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series 142+ o& b8 j _3 x9 o+ J% \
6.6.3 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 1446 u3 p# M) m/ ~4 s
6.7 Photovoltaic Systems 145+ F. r( c1 j. M* P8 R8 q; F ~
6.7.1 Illumination Area 146; \: c1 r% h; {3 k
6.7.2 Solar Modules and Panels 146
4 n$ c, K- I e; W+ C2 ^% r8 z6.7.3 Aluminum Structures 146
( }9 L% n1 D0 I) X. U1 x6.7.4 Load Controller 148
" @- k9 [5 ?0 h* t0 u. }1 {6.7.5 Battery Bank 1483 v5 E3 K4 a- h- }. K3 R
6.8 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy 149
6 ]8 ]9 ~ I+ I3 C7 t7 G" ]* A+ u6.8.1 Residential and Public Illumination 149 Q( }( w- Z' z; s' Q4 _
6.8.2 Stroboscopic Signaling 150
6 B* z! Z. u( ]" G/ Q: B6.8.3 Electric Fence 150/ F5 w- `! d+ i2 h. B+ I
6.8.4 Telecommunications 151
- r4 _" N$ K* e0 F0 X$ U' R6.8.5 Water Supply and Micro-Irrigation Systems 151
* p; g3 }; c+ W9 j6.8.6 Control of Plagues and Conservation of. @% A: B# }: T
Food and Medicine 153
! I. M" P& ~9 F# d5 s6.8.7 Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis 154" {: R* A' l, b1 \( i: |% P
6.8.8 Electric Power Supply 155
l* R; Z8 o- e9 x9 E6.8.9 Security and Alarm Systems 156
* C7 D; D1 w' ?. ^. p" C( B2 L5 d6.9 Economical Analysis of Solar Energy 156
# u7 D. @& P) y; v; X6 Z8 T6 ^/ O( MReferences 1575 L) L3 e, L/ A6 i c" E: ~, d7 w, ~
7 POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS 159; z( }$ `. h/ w. c
7.1 Introduction 159$ b) |$ H! W; ?
7.2 The Fuel Cell 160
' A: T7 `% q3 `7.3 Commercial Technologies for Generation of Electricity 162+ o3 l* y/ ?: `* g9 L
7.4 Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking 169( r9 [# P6 l# x3 ?5 i$ c# M k
7.4.1 Low- and High-Temperature Fuel Cells 169; O6 S( Y v3 J6 z9 X* o. y3 c
7.4.2 Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 170
. ^( J# y6 a) L7 rx CONTENTS7.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange
/ K6 b% l% g! F7 g/ WMembrane Fuel Cells 171
4 d1 d1 x. ]6 l) K* d7.6 Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 173, o# O7 R, J3 b, ], T
7.7 Water, Air, and Heat Management 175
- X- r- c3 D4 w" S- L. N7.8 Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells 176+ |1 Q: L# N1 g7 v
7.8.1 Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power 176% f5 a7 s$ v5 Q3 p* e' ^8 i
7.8.2 Amount of Thermal Energy Necessary 178& ]- ?- [4 A1 s7 E) @
7.9 Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions 180
& U. I0 ^& v: \7 t% E" _8 l3 w0 }7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells 181
2 e1 n- W" Q* u) i7.11 Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit 182
# M* X O' m9 }1 t* w2 K7.12 Practical Determination of the Equivalent Model Parameters 1885 Z3 c. K5 D/ V- l8 n
7.12.1 Example of Determination of FC Parameters 191
7 M3 k% I2 Y. n& R7.13 Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel 194- L) n% H0 k, ]; R/ p1 I
7.14 Future Perspectives 195( I. b. B/ ?+ ?; }2 y9 {* s/ F
References 196
+ p. i! G9 ], |. [8 BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS 198
# m9 n1 {% N. \! X- E6 @8.1 Introduction 198) B4 [) u% e U0 z" o
8.2 Fuel from Biomass 202
/ l: z( w' i" F c. W' Q7 H8.3 Biogas 204
3 Y# l& A1 c1 y" p. C+ j: }8.4 Biomass for Biogas 205
) X2 i0 n4 L/ z9 i- Y/ Z: M8.5 Biological Formation of Biogas 206
% c& M5 H5 |# Q) ]/ A+ B0 a8.6 Factors Affecting Biodigestion 207
1 @( d- b; v* _# U% P/ y% S+ [( N* `8.7 Characteristics of Biodigesters 209
5 N- l, C! g- p$ U5 d+ R8.8 Construction of Biodigester 210
* V! s0 o2 Z& h2 l( J4 A* s8.8.1 Sizing a Biodigester 2111 N, r# ~5 Y" `! g; c
8.9 Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 211
, ]# m& L) z( ~, S. u$ Y: G4 }References 214
6 \- Z$ z* m4 S, D9 MICROTURBINES 215$ p/ \' r! u$ Y$ z$ D0 r$ p
9.1 Introduction 215
4 ^ M% G0 c; {1 V5 f# `) {% d9.2 Princples of Operation 217& z- E2 y: {6 G1 x- b8 f, O/ C
9.3 Microturbine Fuel 219
9 S" J: c) |; Z2 C o h* a' ~9.4 Control of Microturbines 220' Z3 S+ L* ~ i) ^4 z
9.4.1 Mechanical-Side Structure 2205 y* C7 f* D1 e; L& J+ B- ?
9.4.2 Electrical-Side Structure 222, R4 g5 i' g% m: E- @4 M @, Q( {
9.4.3 Control-Side Structure 224
- c' ~4 R: v- m3 eCONTENTS xi9.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines 228) `7 y* L% y- R, v
9.6 Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 230
" F" W8 G! k( k6 y3 p3 ^References 2311 |0 r v: I- w
10 INDUCTION GENERATORS 233" C# P: M; p0 i% X/ }- v
10.1 Introduction 233
& J' E. X; T0 y$ g( j5 w10.2 Principles of Operation 234' g9 T/ F: Y# f4 c/ h3 G4 v6 r
10.3 Representation of Steady-State Operation 236
3 }" e2 ^& c# D10.4 Power and Losses Generated 237
& J3 R" {0 }/ R8 }3 @2 t4 U1 x10.5 Self-Excited Induction Generator 2408 y- [+ @4 j0 ^" O; X
10.6 Magnetizing Curves and Self-Excitation 242, b( x, U9 m7 i
10.7 Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process 243
" m% Z o+ c* _' |* [4 ]3 R% D10.8 Interconnected and Stand-Alone Operation 246
' n* T7 @+ Y# z0 |6 `: P10.9 Speed and Voltage Control 248
3 e( Z$ {/ Y `10.9.1 Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls 249
4 l! O* y4 S0 S6 u' k6 Z# H10.9.2 Load Control Versus Source Control! A9 k4 f7 A3 F7 w0 u* e. Y6 z3 ?
for Induction Generators 250. |% p, b' j$ s7 K0 B6 v
10.9.3 The Danish Concept 254
2 ^$ t. t" p9 Q6 ?! q" G10.9.4 Variable-Speed Grid Connection 255
4 _: h2 W2 z4 Y k10.9.5 Control by the Load Versus Control by
$ K" @1 e3 _6 B! L) E. u8 Xthe Source 256
3 |1 J0 @2 l" F/ T9 C9 k% D2 e10.10 Economical Aspects 2589 w, i% _7 ]: _: i% s. n% m$ p
References 259
0 o2 b4 }6 J7 H1 c' f" D11 STORAGE SYSTEMS 262/ K# ]8 s! D# I
11.1 Introduction 2622 ]& D; v% _- P6 Y
11.2 Energy Storage Parameters 2655 o5 F& \9 ]9 Z" u
11.3 Lead–Acid Batteries 268
! w2 D% `" o7 y. u4 f11.3.1 Constructional Features 268
% u5 ]* k& y( K% H0 i11.3.2 Battery Charge–Discharge Cycles 2691 i* X+ Z' T6 Z( I7 C" x
11.3.3 Operating Limits and Parameters 271
" `3 j6 o9 |9 k3 [9 Y9 ~6 d11.3.4 Maintenance of Lead–Acid Batteries 273$ `% M+ n- S7 V) {8 O$ V$ R
11.3.5 Sizing Lead–Acid Batteries for DG Applications 2739 b4 R- Z4 ]8 G4 y/ I' n
11.4 Ultracapacitors 276# D4 u- `8 F( a& D
11.4.1 Double-Layer Ultracapacitors 277
* p0 g: ^; A5 T- g7 y11.4.2 High-Energy Ultracapacitors 2785 o/ _0 P" E# N& g( m
11.4.3 Applications of Ultracapacitors 279
; C0 M+ n' S" c$ X8 A2 b; Txii CONTENTS11.5 Flywheels 282
& K3 q3 f, ]) x" h9 m; w$ G# k11.5.1 Advanced Performance of Flywheels 282
) d" b3 g& X8 ^* S# y4 \; c11.5.2 Applications of Flywheels 282* V( K1 p1 o% e6 k: r, n# o9 b$ x
11.5.3 Design Strategies 284
+ S8 W) a0 ~; |4 l( c/ q( G2 Q11.6 Superconducting Magnetic Storage System 286- g x" U% ?) o
11.6.1 SMES System Capabilities 2872 ]- r" v( S; G7 N
11.6.2 Developments in SMES Systems 288: Y3 m# E9 M& F) H, j, V- |
11.7 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage 2909 Z, Q+ ?: h; y0 s- `, B
11.7.1 Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems 291$ t( t3 U3 n% T4 c0 ]9 l. X: g7 q6 z
11.8 Compressed Air Energy Storage 2929 F# U% B( x4 i9 F, I/ q' ` t! w6 r
11.9 Storage Heat 294
5 D7 M Q4 N2 Q11.10 Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 295
: Y6 X7 C$ N T5 O% A5 aReferences 299
% P, F$ s: c% C2 D) U0 B12 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
2 z" H0 I: K# W! I/ B+ u3 LOF ENERGY 301) b# ^+ a! I; Q/ Y5 N8 e: |' O. I$ v% o
12.1 Introduction 301) {4 Y# V, J1 l, y
12.2 Principles of Power Injection 302/ ]% ~. \* u- m2 l5 S
12.2.1 Converting Technologies 302+ _1 L, k2 S$ ]5 Z7 g
12.2.2 Power Converters for Power Injection
9 T2 c7 ^- S3 w, winto the Grid 304
* z, G* A: e0 w8 D12.2.3 Power Flow 3063 v# H& T0 Z; C. L
12.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power! _' A* p$ T. f ~0 m
Control Approach 3093 A6 w* m' x( V6 L' e
12.4 Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources 312
: E- a, m- ?1 w, j( U# k. [. O! Z12.4.1 DC-Link Integration 315
7 k8 A9 h1 o' E; ~12.4.2 AC-Link Integration 316
$ r" Z6 |$ ?% \ }5 k$ H1 ~1 l4 z& W12.4.3 HFAC-Link Integration 317
+ M; k' T0 x2 A% x8 H, E) ?- M3 J12.5 Islanding and Interconnection Control 320
7 b0 ?: D- J2 |5 I: a8 c. J12.6 DG Control and Power Injection 325. Y" A2 y7 T! i2 n
References 331: V! Z/ |; P' f
13 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 333
6 D _' H T; J3 J6 [: X/ z9 o3 G0 X: c13.1 Introduction 3332 W: A7 C9 m3 b, r6 y) E
13.2 The Purpose of Distributed Generation 335
1 L" ?, ^* j1 R13.3 Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation 338) g2 q1 } e2 D! c
13.4 Demand-Side Management 339
2 s2 m% {0 _9 |13.5 Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 340
! n+ K# _) i1 K2 QCONTENTS xiii13.5.1 DG Influence on Power and Energy
f$ ~/ d0 ~2 M" x" W( @. [- LLosses 342
) M3 F( H" Q$ {. r$ S: {13.5.2 Estimation of DG Influence on Power3 ^! b" s/ C0 o- W
Losses of Subtransmission Systems 346
' ~' i" m1 J& y1 Q0 [3 W13.5.3 Equivalent of Subtransmission Systems* T2 a' Y3 ]2 V1 Q
Using Experimental Design 348
3 @8 W3 F& |. r8 W$ G* a" b9 S& F' g13.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis 350
" m( v! W. U lReferences 352
6 U8 {& h2 b: R7 f# W14 INTERCONNECTION OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
$ H2 }& D' V( f c" WSOURCES WITH THE GRID 3542 M, B% o: p5 ?: m+ r' `, z* |
Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard DeBlasio,5 ~3 G4 O. J1 j
and N. Richard Friedman% A. k2 O0 g- L/ }+ o
14.1 Introduction 354
: E8 L7 W* f' P) }0 q14.2 Interconnection Technologies 3573 s+ s, \! O0 Q& _; `9 r% s* y% G
14.2.1 Synchronous Interconnection 357
6 r( ^2 c4 U' u2 K4 V5 w0 a14.2.2 Induction Interconnection 358
8 c8 ~% `6 [/ S; E( I G$ F14.2.3 Inverter Interconnection 359
1 j$ M. B6 [) d' R, C14.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection 359
4 o, U3 L# ^2 L/ E f14.3.1 IEEE 1547 360
; o. ^ O8 b, @4 m7 A- H# A+ s; S7 m14.3.2 National Electrical Code 361. m3 Y, t9 W* b' ^! n% N3 Y
14.3.3 UL Standards 3627 Q+ n! a) p' i) b5 R# ?9 S
14.4 Interconnection Considerations 364- @: S9 a+ o3 R
14.4.1 Voltage Regulation 364
# p( \8 H8 x' C" `3 T14.4.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding 365
m* F9 Q# ?6 c8 S5 o( K14.4.3 Synchronization 365( @; |9 I, U7 C6 P! [# @
14.4.4 Isolation 365) h) V$ o) f3 d4 b1 o Y
14.4.5 Response to Voltage Disturbance 366
* j0 O. J, q0 V6 I14.4.6 Response to Frequency Disturbance 367" X" W5 p% L& C; p' T
14.4.7 Disconnection for Faults 368, q% b/ c; a: v9 T6 i! t6 i
14.4.8 Loss of Synchronism 369
}( c7 _. o) {. P14.4.9 Feeder Reclosing Coordination 369! ?$ B3 e5 A" ?. d% J! z
14.4.10 DC Injection 370
9 p, P% |2 V- P W3 F14.4.11 Voltage Flicker 371
. S/ b' N8 s( @% R8 e- J4 Q9 i4 }/ _14.4.12 Harmonics 3717 @) m( } w8 x
14.4.13 Unintentional Islanding Protection 373" C. e& S4 N ?% z
14.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources 373$ N6 V& y* [3 M2 R2 ^- p
14.5.1 Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction 375
1 F w* g0 S, D# V" X. m+ Fxiv CONTENTS14.5.2 Small Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System 375* f$ Z# o: ^1 c+ Y0 N- ^0 i0 [
References 378: t+ v' Q2 v" C; P1 D* f
15 MICROPOWER SYSTEM MODELING WITH HOMER 3790 |! k+ b* E5 s {7 D& k
Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal4 n8 ]$ A( ]5 r5 e( O. ^
15.1 Introduction 379% C2 I# q. J: V! Q
15.2 Simulation 381
. d- b& F) P' T# ^15.3 Optimization 385- r. z( h* e& r5 {4 @/ V
15.4 Sensitivity Analysis 388
/ f, B) N0 h1 C! J R15.4.1 Dealing with Uncertainty 389
5 [" x w# X/ h$ a* Z, U15.4.2 Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 391/ H( G6 c8 L0 t8 ]( d. q3 W- e9 {
15.5 Physical Modeling 393
# @) K( h$ o$ c/ y" a15.5.1 Loads 393; m( b" h. x' g3 b8 M
15.5.2 Resources 3953 V$ L) K1 O2 N+ M
15.5.3 Components 397
/ t& [% j4 n/ g U15.5.4 System Dispatch 408' D: a# r# r# X; Q6 c: v: t
15.6 Economic Modeling 414, }/ m9 }' D# O
References 4167 L0 P4 I. q# ~- [5 l$ Z
Glossary 416$ \, q& @3 B( m# n0 Y3 O4 g
APPENDIX A: DIESEL POWER PLANTS 419
; h+ d# `! e& x; {4 Y; F; GA.1 Introduction 419
$ H r) D. a9 K; Q2 qA.2 Diesel Engine 420' Z6 V) R: j; Z1 a* q, c7 F
A.3 Principal Components of a Diesel Engine 421
8 f3 n; |; r9 P2 f6 H6 _, [A.3.1 Fixed Parts 421& y$ v: C9 Q. j Y* E: M
A.3.2 Moving Parts 421
! `6 h' o& l# o7 W; bA.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 422
7 [8 W; n f. R0 c! j+ [A.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 422
2 m7 x4 }$ X4 ^A.4.1 Diesel Cycle 4222 u; V: ?! L5 x5 N. A" j
A.4.2 Combustion Process 424
& ^' B) O/ q/ q t/ o* f+ zA.5 Diesel Engine Cycle 4252 t# }2 x# J0 L/ h* J: K- y
A.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 425- d5 J8 x; Y4 o
A.5.2 Classification of Diesel Engines 426
+ j, A, D8 P% f* t( P! f2 X6 }A.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 427
! L) q2 T/ g. K6 wA.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by c$ ~6 i" D+ ?
Diesel Engines 427
1 A& E4 J$ t& k3 I8 pReferences 429: E% I/ K- L1 j0 Z
CONTENTS xvAPPENDIX B: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 431
& U3 C/ b* o o& L$ ?, ]) w+ OB.1 Introduction 431
4 z' E. l K0 r1 s& T4 nB.2 Geothermal as a Source of Energy 4328 i* j. G6 q0 u1 m! b& h
B.2.1 Geothermal Economics 434
$ p# N( j. t( f0 Y" F9 p C" TB.2.2 Geothermal Electricity 435
3 L' i9 D; X. ^5 a8 U7 X3 dB.2.3 Geothermal/Ground Source Heat Pumps 436
& k/ S8 O; ?' E2 G0 mReferences 437
4 r0 H! {: m# y/ p {- s+ }2 GAPPENDIX C: THE STIRLING ENGINE 438
: ^' ` a# v! X0 }" u) uC.1 Introduction 438
3 {% c& ?& b; @2 r2 hC.2 Stirling Cycle 439, R" g- z9 C$ C3 f
C.3 Displacer Stirling Engine 442
% e% X- D2 I# Z3 t2 c6 ZC.4 Two-Piston Stirling Engine 444
8 E5 V3 T7 b1 X, F& N+ Q! ?% QReferences 446
) m1 Q. s! C; y) c* u$ W `INDEX 447 |
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