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第二本比较新 06年出的
, C, M; d( {$ G% xCONTRIBUTORS xvii$ C/ \+ H% e, P8 A2 |3 L- y. m
FOREWORD xix8 d) p; i- M, V, E* B! `9 t
PREFACE xxi
& _1 _1 m, ?+ h* E7 l; o- {ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii
$ e# I" [( d. k+ D: _ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv# G# Z$ T5 p0 x; U1 K2 [
1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY 1& |! x: P" b. \* N' S8 a
1.1 Introduction 1
2 r9 d6 {+ s; d1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 25 _* k0 F# \) a
1.3 Renewable Energy Versus Alternative Energy 4
( C, r1 M3 @+ Z* m( B/ Y! h/ f9 E1.4 Planning and Development of Integrated Energy 8
# D4 }! S" x" z2 n8 O1.4.1 Grid-Supplied Electricity 9
6 f3 O' \3 }1 {+ _$ \9 y1.4.2 Load 10
8 O# e, |; p; c7 n) j1.4.3 Distributed Generation 10
9 D; n1 Y% F+ F6 }) B1.5 Renewable Energy Economics 11
1 S: M* f1 k! n) ?' F1.5.1 Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs 12* i8 { ~( X, j( E m' P' r
1.6 European Targets for Renewables 14
# ^% x2 r0 n' m8 B8 d: f% Z1 Z4 i1.6.1 Demand-Side Management Options 15
- k; W! m* K+ c$ B1.6.2 Supply-Side Management Options 16
( w: W( q1 @& i! @' f; i! u1.7 Integration of Renewable Energy Sources 19( r4 h; t* n1 T: a: V2 y- j
1.7.1 Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States 20
# X* h4 ]* u5 @& h) N2 r( a( \1.7.2 Energy Recovery Time 21
, y8 l, ~4 b l1 I+ d1.7.3 Sustainability 23
O' w4 s& }: {# S5 O& H# j& S4 Q1.8 Modern Electronic Controls of Power Systems 263 L, ]3 n" C. Q' T# n6 _
References 27
' O5 D1 y; L+ ~ h* f% {; i2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 28/ k& Z# ^/ r* R& ^ Y% E
2.1. Introduction 28, e0 F$ J5 t8 S; B F
2.2. State of a Thermodynamic System 29( \- N/ F% L5 k( H0 n
2.3. Fundamental Laws and Principles 36
& O; h: S9 r9 [8 r2.3.1 Example in a Nutshell 37' ^+ a9 w2 {1 z0 U0 X' Q9 s' f
2.3.2 Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant 40# i) G. m' a. T% {7 e
2.3.3 Rankine Cycle for Power Plants 41
8 ^7 C' T2 i0 y* f4 `$ l2.3.4 Brayton Cycle for Power Plants 444 P: y8 b# K- _, u3 K# `3 j! P! E
2.3.5 Energy and Power 46( R5 y0 J: x) ]" L
2.4 Examples of Energy Balance 47
% Q/ y! W' H/ f6 T& z2.4.1 Simple Residential Energy Balance 47
6 }3 r2 C% Q) U' ~' A# z2.4.2 Refrigerator Energy Balance 48$ ~/ z/ G& ^5 t8 U1 a8 Z" }/ P
2.4.3 Energy Balance for a Water Heater 49( J6 ]; [& P+ \! ^- u0 ]
2.4.4 Rock Bed Energy Balance 51, `( |3 m! u7 @4 S( s
2.4.5 Array of Solar Collectors 51
% z. { G$ U/ g+ ?& L$ C6 i2.4.6 Heat Pump 52
( G- W' g5 V/ q. i4 W: ^1 s+ Z6 i2.4.7 Heat Transfer Analysis 53' S: @1 v0 _' L) c: h8 u
2.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 549 {) X7 C' R" g+ |/ W& g
References 56+ C+ j$ j3 V+ K4 H! Z9 r# o
3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 57
e \; o; ~' G+ L) V3.1 Introduction 57
, r0 l: i8 Z& A# O& a3.2 Determination of the Useful Power 58
/ Y9 v0 L7 W4 _- j4 A- {* C9 z3.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements 60
9 C" i9 W7 K$ _: i3 ~/ Z3.3.1 Simple Measurement of Elevation 60
0 R) _0 T# u P% F3.3.2 Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement 60
8 j/ l* K) W4 o2 A7 M3.3.3 Specification of Pipe Losses 62
6 a% q+ T* m2 f6 Q3.3.4 Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow 63& d8 p- W8 h1 m1 a6 P, O) u* Z; C+ ^
3.3.5 Civil Works 671 l8 b& K t$ \ F; T, w1 Z
3.4 Generating Unit 67
1 {) @( O; E5 C# g% S& a/ a3.4.1 Regulation Systems 67
( W' W6 F; }, U7 `5 \. |3.4.2 Butterfly Valves 68% B, U7 [4 B+ D
3.5 Waterwheels 68- @( Q+ _' ?1 [) \, ^( t
3.6 Turbines 70
- g V3 `: |' w0 {8 k3.6.1 Pelton Turbine 71 p; p' v2 y# S4 ?; w& ]
3.6.2 Francis Turbine 74/ z9 K" C0 e { K& o
3.6.3 Michel–Banki Turbine 77, U, [( D8 r( D ^4 h
3.6.4 Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine 79
" M8 r. y, b, B# a# E; |( q3.6.5 Deriaz Turbines 80( l2 g8 V1 b x. d
3.6.6 Water Pumps Working as Turbines 80" X* F- X& X7 H, d n
3.6.7 Specification of Hydro Turbines 810 y; p! q- o0 ^3 A2 ]
References 82
: t5 D8 [5 d/ u( N8 F) b4 WIND POWER PLANTS 84
" z$ q* R* L. Q! l8 X8 u4.1 Introduction 84
/ n1 Y# N" e. Q" S% L+ ]6 f4.2 Appropriate Location 85
2 W; O5 Y" a1 r6 h d% H3 a4.2.1 Evaluation of Wind Intensity 85
_% v" U: y) ?% B1 \( o4.2.2 Topography 935 Z5 i' X$ ~$ |8 [2 r
4.2.3 Purpose of the Energy Generated 95
2 f8 `& d5 H3 N4.2.4 Means of Access 952 @4 ^) N# j3 c7 o! X& ?
4.3 Wind Power 95- z9 w" D! c' L; X
4.4 General Classification of Wind Turbines 97! J. D1 L$ [6 W. W/ F$ c- R
4.4.1 Rotor Turbines 995 C: P. N( q! p; U) W
4.4.2 Multiple-Blade Turbines 99: a/ F; O; c' @0 C2 A+ x
4.4.3 Drag Turbines (Savonius) 100
0 Q4 V. p0 ^ Y# Y4.4.4 Lifting Turbines 1019 i2 \: }( x& x L
4.4.5 System TARP–WARP 1020 T2 ]6 x4 X7 M4 x6 w
4.4.6 Accessories 103
: H- r R7 S9 ]; M% E* }4 i4.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy 104
4 m+ ^; `) @( E- `* G0 |$ f4.6 Analysis of Small Generating Systems 107- P2 D9 M! p. g' N! o
References 110
4 D6 z* l- t5 T* S5 THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS 112/ w* x1 f1 d- p0 B2 R
5.1 Introduction 112
; v: g F% S" M/ l1 M1 S5.2 Water Heating by Solar Energy 112
7 E$ y7 d1 u, k8 k+ {' N5.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs 1156 @' J6 j* r& Q1 Q
5.4 Heating Domestic Water 1187 F$ ~5 _" g! e7 Z3 I& q0 ]2 i
5.5 Thermosolar Energy 119
- o. L3 X# Q5 X' ]2 A6 B" t5.5.1 Parabolic Trough 120" e, G) V6 G# b1 n- ~
5.5.2 Parabolic Dish 1223 n8 x3 H, [" p! z6 F2 h$ T8 ^2 u) K
5.5.3 Solar Power Tower 124
4 e$ K; Z- K) ?: y) a4 s% I5.5.4 Production of Hydrogen 125
5 ^7 }# ^+ K; z) d5.6 Economical Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 126
4 I, c2 S( z2 }* HReferences 127/ B& _( A; O1 D2 A" d
CONTENTS ix6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS 129% m/ K- a0 R6 Y2 P+ H% R V
6.1 Introduction 1293 ]/ X0 J+ J* k$ Z, D* H% w7 M
6.2 Solar Energy 1307 y' |; H$ X B' r5 X O
6.3 Generation of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 132
, Y% g3 K1 V2 {6.4 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature 135
6 L, D3 A1 E. d( }6.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 137
8 ~$ d5 h* e d% i. J6.6 Equivalent Models and Parameters for Photovoltaic Panels 139
2 w1 s% z& F7 X* \! k6.6.1 Dark-Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel 1406 U7 B% f6 \ |0 F8 \. Y, U9 O% a
6.6.2 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series 142
( j8 X9 \* e- n" n, u6.6.3 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 144
+ Y( X! V& i4 s6 ~5 x* y6.7 Photovoltaic Systems 1451 W6 p; D0 y3 _! c1 q& i
6.7.1 Illumination Area 146# k( O( I) c; [3 S0 K2 f$ b/ ]
6.7.2 Solar Modules and Panels 146: |) p0 {0 [1 }( [% c5 D( F/ o5 q
6.7.3 Aluminum Structures 146) A% g+ r, P, X4 i( T
6.7.4 Load Controller 148- M. \9 T/ I" Z5 P
6.7.5 Battery Bank 148$ N) @' s9 ?8 e- |: I, b7 d
6.8 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy 149! m7 v' C* A; n7 l% V4 m" L* _
6.8.1 Residential and Public Illumination 149
- ^# k( G/ L1 p. a! p5 o5 e* G# r6.8.2 Stroboscopic Signaling 150
( ~8 {; O0 T0 ?* u6 F( B6.8.3 Electric Fence 150
3 ^8 x; t4 R# l+ J$ Q6.8.4 Telecommunications 151
. Z& H: S R* c6.8.5 Water Supply and Micro-Irrigation Systems 151
( ~3 P- k. j5 t/ ~: M- I7 i5 `! {3 m6.8.6 Control of Plagues and Conservation of
$ K$ k2 `. a0 {9 j+ ~Food and Medicine 153
, P/ W: ]; k; F! J5 i" h6.8.7 Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis 154
, s9 }# h8 T5 t6.8.8 Electric Power Supply 155% r& g& h# h9 H' F' N0 E1 R2 t0 Y
6.8.9 Security and Alarm Systems 156- W" W) u1 w! q3 |' F0 T- E" G
6.9 Economical Analysis of Solar Energy 156
# y& t, f( m# L' uReferences 157
) f7 h4 {" s* c6 }5 ?7 POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS 159. z z- [! u" h1 g5 W2 R2 R
7.1 Introduction 159
% E y6 G3 c* q# y R3 k5 o7.2 The Fuel Cell 160
8 @2 `/ Q7 D1 h" @ ^+ ]7.3 Commercial Technologies for Generation of Electricity 162
0 W1 M5 B) U- N7.4 Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking 169
; s; z2 G$ ]$ P6 e7.4.1 Low- and High-Temperature Fuel Cells 169
8 |! I7 F B9 h" j- ]7.4.2 Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 170
6 J, D$ V. y5 ^( ux CONTENTS7.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange" g" C# }9 M2 M N
Membrane Fuel Cells 171# q* m2 ~* G* _ o9 W. l
7.6 Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 173, v* f5 R7 {$ p, l2 j) \+ o
7.7 Water, Air, and Heat Management 175" L: d% a' U/ }- J. u U- @
7.8 Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells 1765 [8 r) V: m3 U8 g" F( X7 }
7.8.1 Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power 176
( S; V j$ G9 `. ]8 Z+ w7.8.2 Amount of Thermal Energy Necessary 178
" X: u2 U) d' c) o0 m, f7.9 Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions 1807 w& b3 s" E* J! z7 h* y
7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells 181. r9 k8 B% S/ y; w
7.11 Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit 182
" J" x ]; L5 a9 B$ U+ G$ t7.12 Practical Determination of the Equivalent Model Parameters 188: s$ Q" U% K) ^9 s2 P" a
7.12.1 Example of Determination of FC Parameters 191$ k# r( |( |3 t$ ]* K' A9 T
7.13 Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel 194( w, j: z/ [- k r- o1 b- P
7.14 Future Perspectives 195
; U: k" p, ]9 q' w8 |References 196
/ \7 V" Y4 b+ S( c( H+ P' F: H8 BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS 198
. o. k0 U; E: r# Q' u8.1 Introduction 198
3 T5 m2 e7 o: j* U8.2 Fuel from Biomass 2024 O: U: ] e: J2 @) g# G
8.3 Biogas 204
1 i. v3 ?* O9 p3 E8.4 Biomass for Biogas 205
) c+ e8 i6 _* @- E3 z M8.5 Biological Formation of Biogas 206
6 a Y, `8 v% X2 A4 P8.6 Factors Affecting Biodigestion 207# W0 [6 \# V+ R6 C |
8.7 Characteristics of Biodigesters 209
! u: F- v2 ? b2 s8.8 Construction of Biodigester 210
8 k# c2 S7 }, e2 j/ O- V+ T3 J! Z2 D8.8.1 Sizing a Biodigester 211# M+ Z0 h5 r, K% I7 l
8.9 Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 211
0 q2 K& o6 Y5 w1 E8 c* N$ ?References 214
, u; R V! d- B% m# v: ?) @% I9 MICROTURBINES 215
& W. _/ U3 z. `! e2 {5 }( K8 X9.1 Introduction 215. Y* B8 \2 O N% X
9.2 Princples of Operation 217
; n2 H: q1 I6 o9.3 Microturbine Fuel 219* o, |; ]5 X( M5 Q6 g3 m
9.4 Control of Microturbines 2207 C- j% _' D) h& p4 R* k
9.4.1 Mechanical-Side Structure 220( q/ l) j6 m8 i; V4 _2 @ B
9.4.2 Electrical-Side Structure 222
8 m2 q- u) H' D+ Z8 d3 @9 F9.4.3 Control-Side Structure 224
3 ^0 R' o$ Q, e# ECONTENTS xi9.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines 228
3 r. w' M& m. x- b% G1 ]# z9.6 Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 2306 _2 W9 j' [& U: V P: A
References 231/ c+ u7 w4 B! h3 `& i' S
10 INDUCTION GENERATORS 2335 m/ T3 N9 |- h6 q n5 q% B
10.1 Introduction 233
' \8 T+ y6 L( S4 I8 N) w8 v W7 f10.2 Principles of Operation 234' z6 N, s. U, ?! u2 W3 s2 R" y, a
10.3 Representation of Steady-State Operation 236) ~4 G# n: Q) m- x5 U) m1 e$ h/ [3 }
10.4 Power and Losses Generated 237
" {* F7 h* s1 ?" B5 x7 _. O: }10.5 Self-Excited Induction Generator 240
1 [+ g/ t5 b) u/ K10.6 Magnetizing Curves and Self-Excitation 242
# v2 X3 w, T4 F& u7 ?. Q7 r10.7 Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process 2439 M8 O7 Q+ ^) J5 w$ U! a0 G
10.8 Interconnected and Stand-Alone Operation 2469 [% c: \/ a$ a3 f+ V
10.9 Speed and Voltage Control 248: Z5 P5 y3 n' W9 ?; ^: t4 A: \
10.9.1 Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls 2498 q- q8 ~1 @* N/ E! n$ E5 Q) N) {: h
10.9.2 Load Control Versus Source Control
+ k7 _3 f' M0 J! vfor Induction Generators 250
" W) d3 r! m8 w) [! l3 h7 i, q! u10.9.3 The Danish Concept 254- G0 u! |' S0 f+ P+ f2 `
10.9.4 Variable-Speed Grid Connection 255
5 r8 f# S( R' b3 A! }, N& |# u5 U10.9.5 Control by the Load Versus Control by
p- {7 H: A6 Y3 `8 Cthe Source 256
. _: P+ S( g9 ~5 P10.10 Economical Aspects 258
: U R" B) A4 ~( d9 M* cReferences 259# S0 Y+ i6 ]% y4 l
11 STORAGE SYSTEMS 2620 i3 u( D/ J, o8 i* t1 g9 b& _( E- S
11.1 Introduction 262 U$ x3 c* X2 T
11.2 Energy Storage Parameters 265
2 `' ?5 l, T' Z9 K0 {! Z11.3 Lead–Acid Batteries 268, I/ m1 h( S+ a( R2 j
11.3.1 Constructional Features 268
/ `4 v, T0 S/ d6 M5 F+ X11.3.2 Battery Charge–Discharge Cycles 269$ u5 S: }3 q8 k7 U* G2 X
11.3.3 Operating Limits and Parameters 271% |8 u- |' G1 ?3 I u
11.3.4 Maintenance of Lead–Acid Batteries 273- a/ q. D9 g* q0 O5 J2 g9 z. w
11.3.5 Sizing Lead–Acid Batteries for DG Applications 273
. {" L( C* |( E1 q11.4 Ultracapacitors 276
# a- A% k6 H/ }$ u11.4.1 Double-Layer Ultracapacitors 277
8 G' z! U: K3 M3 Z( d11.4.2 High-Energy Ultracapacitors 278
" q7 t R6 I! ^ ?2 q" R4 ~0 B11.4.3 Applications of Ultracapacitors 279
( j& P$ |' q+ Exii CONTENTS11.5 Flywheels 282! q2 U; z1 z0 {9 I8 A& `( Y. R2 n
11.5.1 Advanced Performance of Flywheels 282
- U( m2 ]! D' `# `7 V% Q11.5.2 Applications of Flywheels 282" k5 ?# A; P1 K3 U1 H6 i8 }
11.5.3 Design Strategies 284
( ^4 d+ B' K) ]+ C) ^; W11.6 Superconducting Magnetic Storage System 286) c' k3 N6 e7 F9 z1 K# t# v
11.6.1 SMES System Capabilities 287+ Y# p' l5 u) X, C& I8 j
11.6.2 Developments in SMES Systems 2882 G4 U. [! K- `4 N) ^
11.7 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage 290
3 B: l' t6 v3 J' {" V3 ~11.7.1 Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems 291
! ?2 ^3 ^4 h6 t4 \" _11.8 Compressed Air Energy Storage 292
1 C( f; w6 Y/ l& }% ]% }( I11.9 Storage Heat 294
2 b% A; Y% c2 e3 f. m11.10 Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 295
6 ?# |- Y7 C. AReferences 299/ c9 `. W/ S% z1 Y. I- W* m
12 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
W2 e& v0 i! r$ \. N3 I! y; J$ ]/ |OF ENERGY 3016 `3 t2 ^! h" `1 ]4 {" l$ @: p
12.1 Introduction 301, |; _8 ?/ V* P2 ^* ]
12.2 Principles of Power Injection 302
; E0 g3 f8 t, D; s/ `12.2.1 Converting Technologies 302% G" X! g8 U9 Z. J/ t
12.2.2 Power Converters for Power Injection& |! m8 s* x, n' u9 i6 H$ O
into the Grid 304
8 } b% c8 l4 x9 L9 M/ k; y# O: F6 ^12.2.3 Power Flow 306
! T+ a) r% L. z+ A! g- h12.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power2 w5 _; y, ~7 a0 A
Control Approach 309
: D7 ~( e- {! c' v' b5 \12.4 Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources 312
1 A* X+ Y" {. w3 V' Y2 |12.4.1 DC-Link Integration 315) e1 Q) o4 B F, }
12.4.2 AC-Link Integration 3161 G/ J, ^; ?) v7 g/ P
12.4.3 HFAC-Link Integration 317
0 x! W" S/ O7 t% R5 b: m6 _12.5 Islanding and Interconnection Control 320! r, y$ C% g6 m. X
12.6 DG Control and Power Injection 325+ I6 h- P% O1 H0 a( ?) P3 ]
References 331
4 b' d( p/ Y, n/ H13 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 333# P, w0 x% e7 J. `; S9 P7 c% M
13.1 Introduction 333/ t7 M6 R( L5 m2 T6 @: \" A& Y
13.2 The Purpose of Distributed Generation 335
1 `, e& \4 s& |( y13.3 Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation 3384 X: G) W2 k& r- w* X; N, O" a, c0 l
13.4 Demand-Side Management 339
+ n4 _; D L z' q5 D5 x13.5 Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 340* @: `2 f# i: O3 K
CONTENTS xiii13.5.1 DG Influence on Power and Energy Z3 L* R5 r& t: _) V% x' R+ S
Losses 342 A6 x( d2 T8 W5 t7 V4 u0 r6 q
13.5.2 Estimation of DG Influence on Power
& W) I8 b. ^& I) J3 y0 Q2 i0 QLosses of Subtransmission Systems 346
( ~" _+ v: c8 X& b2 a: A i13.5.3 Equivalent of Subtransmission Systems: M- o J9 o8 O: b& ?
Using Experimental Design 3487 Z$ p, U) l6 k
13.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis 350, q! ]" ^% u( S
References 352: {! b! P6 \/ h: e
14 INTERCONNECTION OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY& C0 E7 B) z0 o5 X. P) Z7 h7 @
SOURCES WITH THE GRID 3549 b( j# h( m2 ~: K
Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard DeBlasio,& J5 A6 A8 o d% c
and N. Richard Friedman
' Q1 I9 G2 Q% }14.1 Introduction 354
9 [: `( n5 ]( s- `14.2 Interconnection Technologies 357
/ }& \) a: {; ~$ W9 g14.2.1 Synchronous Interconnection 357
5 `/ }8 x4 o j6 J% ]' B3 e14.2.2 Induction Interconnection 358
3 K# d9 @8 A6 T" x: N; W! ]0 `7 W& z14.2.3 Inverter Interconnection 359! S3 S0 d% h0 G- B
14.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection 359& A4 o2 N3 G0 U' x0 X2 y9 D
14.3.1 IEEE 1547 360
* A9 R+ k" |9 s6 D2 l9 l14.3.2 National Electrical Code 3613 L& l) a( M! O+ D! q- a0 Y% D* [
14.3.3 UL Standards 362
3 x* F: M# Q" Y3 p J0 T! H- u) |14.4 Interconnection Considerations 3644 j# B3 C8 C5 ?: r; C
14.4.1 Voltage Regulation 364
0 q+ s4 ?" n: H/ R& t14.4.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding 3658 T7 \4 [7 ]. }
14.4.3 Synchronization 365) X3 O5 S/ W, l* ?
14.4.4 Isolation 365+ J3 N) a/ w, h D
14.4.5 Response to Voltage Disturbance 3662 K5 N: z/ I; c# a7 v
14.4.6 Response to Frequency Disturbance 367
$ e6 H8 R$ Y" ~: g# ~) I14.4.7 Disconnection for Faults 368
" u& J) q+ V4 I8 W2 j14.4.8 Loss of Synchronism 369- p2 v( x3 L, b* G- w6 o
14.4.9 Feeder Reclosing Coordination 369
# U9 ?) E% i8 V+ g% q14.4.10 DC Injection 370! D# h1 T: H8 N/ e
14.4.11 Voltage Flicker 371
' w- u) k- t t14.4.12 Harmonics 3717 r+ \) W, V$ L+ Q
14.4.13 Unintentional Islanding Protection 373
# u5 X# j% I5 l8 l0 Y4 ^14.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources 373
1 ~; ~! @# L( A; h E5 ~8 t14.5.1 Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction 375
) T# Z+ c# F0 F' Qxiv CONTENTS14.5.2 Small Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System 3751 y0 i4 W: T" n# @9 X* O5 ]- k
References 3782 g: k% g. m# b2 i2 e
15 MICROPOWER SYSTEM MODELING WITH HOMER 379% @, N4 z* _# t8 ]4 d
Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal
* ^* @) m( y( a; ^# z8 L; \; g15.1 Introduction 379
/ B- x! }( {% b6 ]! J15.2 Simulation 381
& o- b1 w) N" V" d15.3 Optimization 3854 w. a: X# x5 ]' F6 }4 B* Y& t
15.4 Sensitivity Analysis 388
# E% m4 A' O# Y$ n+ L15.4.1 Dealing with Uncertainty 389
7 x4 R7 c- e8 U; n' G$ C15.4.2 Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 391
[' r0 G1 V: p$ W6 \6 z) D, B15.5 Physical Modeling 393
5 @3 @9 L5 y* u15.5.1 Loads 393
/ m, a! D# z/ M. [" K# U15.5.2 Resources 395
. R- L" `0 V) N* F# G, b15.5.3 Components 3971 F# i& C; k# o; l( {3 b$ C) x
15.5.4 System Dispatch 408% C6 S/ _; z& E. [% ]
15.6 Economic Modeling 4145 v$ L% W% A5 U& r# F2 F; G
References 4163 X+ D3 D# f! Y5 \9 i' G" A( W8 X) `3 h
Glossary 416
& s5 K, S/ Z- L6 u0 f7 ]3 wAPPENDIX A: DIESEL POWER PLANTS 419
& P& o6 P* P( lA.1 Introduction 419
: m$ s, [- Z3 q- |2 QA.2 Diesel Engine 420
# ?; y! v9 K, GA.3 Principal Components of a Diesel Engine 421
, Z8 L# {0 f8 U! ZA.3.1 Fixed Parts 421. R; x$ D4 Q) P3 k% d5 @3 R( \8 a
A.3.2 Moving Parts 4216 r. Q3 `3 G) ]+ J7 u
A.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 422
1 K" R% V8 C' WA.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 422! q2 O) I- ?( s3 P T
A.4.1 Diesel Cycle 422
% {# R. `2 w- k) ?+ q& oA.4.2 Combustion Process 424
3 f: Z+ d& m! Q6 T8 _! X# L {A.5 Diesel Engine Cycle 425
$ i2 f& k: w- ^, [, iA.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 425/ \) `. ]+ F' g+ w3 a& ~
A.5.2 Classification of Diesel Engines 426
, w# A3 V) V' S7 aA.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 427" N: M! q. R3 w Y* _/ o
A.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by
& _! M* C$ F( U6 H- T# mDiesel Engines 427* ~ V+ |( C9 j4 F) _) H
References 4297 U" L- I5 V# O1 P% N
CONTENTS xvAPPENDIX B: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 431
; e# I) O0 |- r7 J1 x* dB.1 Introduction 431& T3 U/ ]* G Y* `+ l) L
B.2 Geothermal as a Source of Energy 4328 p! C* Z' f1 o7 W$ [4 C
B.2.1 Geothermal Economics 434
# t) q/ m) F6 s1 M6 D N3 F* ^B.2.2 Geothermal Electricity 435+ A, _* W5 z5 O7 O
B.2.3 Geothermal/Ground Source Heat Pumps 436
4 R3 G; Q/ e! |9 fReferences 4371 q- |1 F$ c- R9 ?! {7 b
APPENDIX C: THE STIRLING ENGINE 438/ p" l& k/ P" X/ A$ E
C.1 Introduction 438% z* q. O5 e) o7 a! e6 p9 X
C.2 Stirling Cycle 439) a; K1 |; L' E! d7 b0 h( t
C.3 Displacer Stirling Engine 442
. h8 v5 D2 I ZC.4 Two-Piston Stirling Engine 444( s) J# ?! i5 m! \
References 446
4 p A- n; L8 N. a* l1 wINDEX 447 |
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