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1、Integration of Alternative Sources of Energy.pdf
IEEE press
简要目录
1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY 1
2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 28
3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 57
4 WIND POWER PLANTS 84
5 THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS 112
6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS 129
7 POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS 159
8 BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS 198
9 MICROTURBINES 215
10 INDUCTION GENERATORS 233
11 STORAGE SYSTEMS 262
12 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
OF ENERGY 301
13 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 333
14 INTERCONNECTION OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES WITH THE GRID 354
15 MICROPOWER SYSTEM MODELING WITH HOMER 379
Glossary 416
APPENDIX A: DIESEL POWER PLANTS 419
APPENDIX B: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 431
APPENDIX C: THE STIRLING ENGINE 438
2、fuel cell system explained.pdf
Wiley press
简要目录
1. Introduction ............................................................................. 1
2. Efficiency and Open Circuit Voltage ..................................... 25
3. Operational Fuel Cell Voltages .............................................. 45
4. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells ................................ 67
5. Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells ............................................... 121
6. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells ..................................................... 141
7. Medium and High Temperature Fuel Cells ........................... 163
8. Fuelling Fuel Cells .................................................................. 229
9. Compressors, Turbines, Ejectors, Fans, Blowers, and
10. Delivering Fuel Cell Power ..................................................... 331
11. Fuel Cell Systems Analyzed .................................................. 369
Appendix 1. Change in Molar Gibbs Free Energy Calculations ......... 391
Appendix 2. Useful Fuel Cell Equations ............................................. 395 不错 但能不能现简单介绍下传的东西 刚下下来 先把目录贴出来
Fuel Cell Systems Explained
Second Edition 2003出版的
第一版是2000年1月出版的
下面是目录
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................ xiii
Foreword to the First Edition ........................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ......................................................................... xvii
Abbreviations................................................................................... xix
Symbols........................................................................................... xxi
1. Introduction ............................................................................. 1
1.1Hydrogen Fuel Cells – Basic Principles..................................... 1
1.2What Limits the Current? ........................................................... 5
1.3Connecting Cells in Series – the Bipolar Plate .......................... 6
1.4Gas Supply and Cooling ............................................................ 10
1.5Fuel Cell Types.......................................................................... 14
1.6Other Cells – Some Fuel Cells, Some Not ................................ 16
1.6.1Biological Fuel Cells ...................................................... 17
1.6.2Metal/Air Cells................................................................ 17
1.6.3Redox Flow Cells or Regenerative Fuel Cells ............... 18
1.7Other Parts of a Fuel Cell System ............................................. 19
1.8Figures Used to Compare Systems........................................... 21
1.9Advantages and Applications .................................................... 22
References ......................................................................................... 24
2.Efficiency and Open Circuit Voltage ..................................... 25
2.1Energy and the EMF of the Hydrogen Fuel Cell ........................ 25
2.2The Open Circuit Voltage of Other Fuel Cells and Batteries ..... 30
2.3Efficiency and Efficiency Limits ................................................. 31
2.4Efficiency and the Fuel Cell Voltage .......................................... 34
2.5The Effect of Pressure and Gas Concentration ......................... 35
2.5.1The Nernst Equation ...................................................... 35
2.5.2Hydrogen Partial Pressure............................................. 38
2.5.3Fuel and Oxidant Utilization ........................................... 39
2.5.4System Pressure............................................................ 40
2.5.5An Application – Blood Alcohol Measurement ............... 41
2.6 Summary................................................................................... 42
References ......................................................................................... 43
3.Operational Fuel Cell Voltages .............................................. 45
3.1 Introduction................................................................................ 45
3.2 Terminology............................................................................... 47
3.3Fuel Cell Irreversibilities – Causes of Voltage Drop .................. 47
3.4Activation Losses....................................................................... 48
3.4.1The Tafel Equation ........................................................ 48
3.4.2The Constants in the Tafel Equation.............................. 49
3.4.3Reducing the Activation Overvoltage............................. 52
3.4.4Summary of Activation Overvoltage............................... 53
3.5Fuel Crossover and Internal Currents ....................................... 53
3.6Ohmic Losses ............................................................................ 56
3.7Mass Transport or Concentration Losses.................................. 57
3.8Combining the Irreversibilities ................................................... 59
3.9The Charge Double Layer ......................................................... 61
3.10Distinguishing the Different Irreversibilities................................ 63
References ......................................................................................... 66
4.Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells................................ 67
4.1 Overview.................................................................................... 67
4.2How the Polymer Electrolyte Works .......................................... 69
4.3Electrodes and Electrode Structure ........................................... 72
4.4Water Management in the PEMFC............................................ 75
4.4.1Overview of the Problem................................................ 75
4.4.2Airflow and Water Evaporation ...................................... 76
4.4.3Humidity of PEMFC Air .................................................. 80
4.4.4Running PEM Fuel Cells without Extra Humidification .. 83
4.4.5External Humidification – Principles............................... 85
4.4.6External Humidification – Methods ................................ 87
4.5PEM Fuel Cell Cooling and Air Supply ...................................... 90
4.5.1Cooling Using the Cathode Air Supply........................... 90
4.5.2Separate Reactant and Cooling Air ............................... 91
4.5.3Water Cooling of PEM Fuel Cells .................................. 93
4.6PEM Fuel Cell Connection – the Bipolar Plate .......................... 94
4.6.1 Introduction.................................................................... 94
4.6.2Flow Field Patterns on the Bipolar Plates ...................... 94
4.6.3Making Bipolar Plates for PEM Fuel Cells ..................... 96
4.6.4Other Topologies ........................................................... 100
4.7Operating Pressure ................................................................... 102
4.7.1Outline of the Problem ................................................... 102
4.7.2Simple Quantitative Cost/Benefit Analysis of Higher
Operating Pressures ...................................................... 103
4.7.3Other Factors Affecting Choice of Pressure .................. 108
4.8Reactant Composition ............................................................... 110
4.8.1Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.......................................... 110
4.8.2Methanol and Other Liquid Fuels................................... 111
4.8.3Using Pure Oxygen in Place of Air................................. 111
4.9Example Systems ...................................................................... 112
4.9.1Small 12-W System ....................................................... 112
4.9.2Medium 2-kW System.................................................... 114
4.9.3205-kW Fuel Cell Engine ............................................... 117
References ......................................................................................... 118
5.Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells ............................................... 121
5.1Historical Background and Overview......................................... 121
5.1.1Basic Principles ............................................................. 121
5.1.2Historical Importance ..................................................... 121
5.1.3Main Advantages ........................................................... 122
5.2Types of Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cell ...................................... 124
5.2.1Mobile Electrolyte .......................................................... 124
5.2.2Static Electrolyte Alkaline Fuel Cells.............................. 127
5.2.3Dissolved Fuel Alkaline Fuel Cells................................. 129
5.3Operating Pressure and Temperature ....................................... 132
5.4Electrodes for Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells ............................ 134
5.4.1 Introduction.................................................................... 134
5.4.2Sintered Nickel Powder ................................................. 134
5.4.3 Raney Metals................................................................. 135
5.4.4Rolled Electrodes........................................................... 135
5.5Cell Interconnections ................................................................. 137
5.6Problems and Development ...................................................... 137
References ......................................................................................... 138
6.Direct Methanol Fuel Cells ..................................................... 141
6.1 Introduction................................................................................141
6.2Anode Reaction and Catalysts .................................................. 143
6.2.1Overall DMFC Reaction ................................................. 143
6.2.2Anode Reactions in the Alkaline DMFC......................... 144
6.2.3Anode Reactions in the PEM Direct Methanol FC ......... 144
6.2.4Anode Fuel Feed ........................................................... 146
6.2.5Anode Catalysts............................................................. 147
6.3Electrolyte and Fuel Crossover ................................................. 148
6.3.1How Fuel Crossover Occurs .......................................... 148
6.3.2Standard Techniques for Reducing Fuel Crossover ...... 149
6.3.3Fuel Crossover Techniques in Development ................. 150
6.4Cathode Reactions and Catalysts ............................................. 151
6.5Methanol Production, Storage, and Safety ................................ 152
6.5.1Methanol Production ...................................................... 152
6.5.2Methanol Safety ............................................................. 153
6.5.3Methanol Compared to Ethanol ..................................... 155
6.5.4Methanol Storage .......................................................... 156
6.6Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Applications ...................................... 157
References ......................................................................................... 160
7.Medium and High Temperature Fuel Cells ........................... 163
7.1 Introduction................................................................................163
7.2Common Features ..................................................................... 165
7.2.1An Introduction to Fuel Reforming ................................. 165
7.2.2Fuel Utilization ............................................................... 166
7.2.3Bottoming Cycles ........................................................... 168
7.2.4The Use of Heat Exchangers – Exergy and Pinch
Technology .................................................................... 174
7.3The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) ..................................... 177
7.3.1How It Works ................................................................. 177
7.3.2Performance of the PAFC.............................................. 182
7.3.3Recent Developments in PAFC ..................................... 184
7.4The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) .................................. 187
7.4.1How It Works ................................................................. 187
7.4.2Implications of Using a Molten Carbonate Electrolyte ... 190
7.4.3Cell Components in the MCFC ...................................... 190
7.4.4Stack Configuration and Sealing.................................... 195
7.4.5Internal Reforming ......................................................... 196
7.4.6Performance of MCFCS................................................. 198
7.4.7Practical MCFC Systems ............................................... 202
7.5The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell .......................................................... 207
7.5.1How It Works ................................................................. 207
7.5.2 SOFC Components........................................................ 209
7.5.3Practical Design and Stacking Arrangements for the
SOFC ............................................................................. 213
7.5.4SOFC Performance ....................................................... 220
7.5.5SOFC Combined Cycles, Novel System Designs and
Hybrid Systems.............................................................. 221
7.5.6Intermediate Temperature SOFCs................................. 225
References ......................................................................................... 226
8.Fuelling Fuel Cells .................................................................. 229
8.1 Introduction................................................................................229
8.2Fossil Fuels ............................................................................... 232
8.2.1 Petroleum...................................................................... 232
8.2.2Petroleum in Mixtures: Tar Sands, Oil Shales, Gas
Hydrates, and LPG ........................................................ 233
8.2.3Coal and Coal Gases..................................................... 234
8.2.4Natural Gas.................................................................... 235
8.3 Bio-Fuels...................................................................................236
8.4The Basics of Fuel Processing .................................................. 238
8.4.1Fuel Cell Requirements ................................................. 238
8.4.2 Desulphurization............................................................ 239
8.4.3Steam Reforming ........................................................... 241
8.4.4Carbon Formation and Pre-Reforming........................... 244
8.4.5Internal Reforming ......................................................... 246
8.4.6Direct Hydrocarbon Oxidation........................................ 248
8.4.7Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming................ 248
8.4.8Hydrogen Generation by Pyrolysis or Thermal
石皮解ing of Hydrocarbons ............................................. 250
8.4.9Further Fuel Processing – Carbon Monoxide Removal . 250
8.5Practical Fuel Processing – Stationary Applications.................. 252
8.5.1Conventional Industrial Steam Reforming ..................... 252
8.5.2System Designs for Natural Gas Fed PEMFC and
PAFC Plants with Steam Reformers.............................. 253
8.5.3Reformer and Partial Oxidation Designs ....................... 257
8.6Practical Fuel Processing – Mobile Applications ....................... 263
8.6.1General Issues............................................................... 263
8.6.2Methanol Reforming for Vehicles................................... 264
8.6.3Micro-Scale Methanol Reactors..................................... 267
8.6.4Gasoline Reforming ....................................................... 269
8.7 Electrolysers..............................................................................270
8.7.1Operation of Electrolysers ............................................. 270
8.7.2Applications of Electrolysers .......................................... 272
8.7.3Electrolyser Efficiency.................................................... 272
8.7.4Generating at High Pressure ......................................... 273
8.7.5 Photo-Electrolysis.......................................................... 275
8.8Biological Production of Hydrogen ............................................ 275
8.8.1 Introduction.................................................................... 275
8.8.2 Photosynthesis.............................................................. 276
8.8.3Hydrogen Production by Digestion Processes............... 278
8.9Hydrogen Storage I – Storage as Hydrogen ............................. 279
8.9.1Introduction to the Problem............................................ 279
8.9.2 Safety............................................................................. 280
8.9.3The Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas.......... 282
8.9.4Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid ................................... 284
8.9.5Reversible Metal Hydride Hydrogen Stores................... 286
8.9.6Carbon Nanofibres......................................................... 289
8.9.7Storage Methods Compared.......................................... 291
8.10Hydrogen Storage II – Chemical Methods................................. 293
8.10.1 Introduction.................................................................... 293
8.10.2 Methanol........................................................................ 293
8.10.3Alkali Metal Hydrides ..................................................... 295
8.10.4Sodium Borohydride ...................................................... 297
8.10.5 Ammonia........................................................................ 301
8.10.6Storage Methods Compared.......................................... 304
References ......................................................................................... 305
9.Compressors, Turbines, Ejectors, Fans, Blowers, and
Pumps...................................................................................... 309
9.1 Introduction................................................................................309
9.2Compressors – Types Used ...................................................... 310
9.3Compressor Efficiency............................................................... 312
9.4Compressor Power .................................................................... 314
9.5Compressor Performance Charts .............................................. 315
9.6Performance Charts for Centrifugal Compressors..................... 318
9.7Compressor Selection – Practical Issues .................................. 320
9.8 Turbines.....................................................................................321
9.9 Turbochargers...........................................................................325
9.10Ejector Circulators ..................................................................... 326
9.11Fans and Blowers ...................................................................... 327
9.12 Membrane/Diaphragm Pumps................................................... 328
References ......................................................................................... 330
10.Delivering Fuel Cell Power..................................................... 331
10.1 Introduction................................................................................ 331
10.2DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion .................................... 332
10.2.1Switching Devices.......................................................... 332
10.2.2Switching Regulators ..................................................... 334
10.3 Inverters..................................................................................... 339
10.3.1Single Phase.................................................................. 339
10.3.2Three Phase .................................................................. 344
10.3.3Regulatory Issues and Tariffs ........................................ 346
10.3.4Power Factor Correction ................................................ 348
10.4Electric Motors ........................................................................... 349
10.4.1General Points ............................................................... 349
10.4.2The Induction Motor ....................................................... 350
10.4.3The Brushless DC Motor................................................ 352
10.4.4Switched Reluctance Motors ......................................... 355
10.4.5Motors Efficiency ........................................................... 357
10.4.6Motor Mass .................................................................... 361
10.5Fuel Cell/Battery or Capacitor Hybrid Systems ......................... 362
References ......................................................................................... 367
11.Fuel Cell Systems Analyzed .................................................. 369
11.1 Introduction................................................................................ 369
11.2Energy Systems ........................................................................ 370
11.3 Well-To-Wheels Analysis........................................................... 371
11.3.1Importance of Well-to-Wheels Analysis ......................... 371
11.3.2 Well-to-Tank Analysis .................................................... 372
11.3.3Main Conclusions of the GM Well-to-Wheels Study ...... 374
11.4Power-Train or Drive-Train Analysis.......................................... 375
11.5Example System I – PEMFC Powered Bus............................... 377
11.6Example System II – Stationary Natural Gas Fuelled System... 382
11.6.1 Introduction.................................................................... 382
11.6.2Flow Sheet and Conceptual Systems Designs .............. 382
11.6.3Detailed Engineering Designs ....................................... 386
11.6.4Further Systems Analysis .............................................. 387
11.7Closing Remarks ....................................................................... 388
References ......................................................................................... 389
Appendices
Appendix 1. Change in Molar Gibbs Free Energy Calculations......... 391
A1.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cell ........................................................ 391
A1.2 The Carbon Monoxide Fuel Cell .................................... 393
References ............................................................................. 394
Appendix 2. Useful Fuel Cell Equations............................................. 395
A2.1 Introduction.................................................................... 395
A2.2 Oxygen and Air Usage................................................... 396
A2.3 Air Exit Flow Rate .......................................................... 397
A2.4 Hydrogen Usage ............................................................ 398
A2.5 Water Production ........................................................... 399
A2.6 Heat Produced ............................................................... 399
Index ...............................................................................................401 恩 这本书我手里也有 写的比较详细 第二本比较新 06年出的
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
FOREWORD xix
PREFACE xxi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv
1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 2
1.3 Renewable Energy Versus Alternative Energy 4
1.4 Planning and Development of Integrated Energy 8
1.4.1 Grid-Supplied Electricity 9
1.4.2 Load 10
1.4.3 Distributed Generation 10
1.5 Renewable Energy Economics 11
1.5.1 Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs 12
1.6 European Targets for Renewables 14
1.6.1 Demand-Side Management Options 15
1.6.2 Supply-Side Management Options 16
1.7 Integration of Renewable Energy Sources 19
1.7.1 Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States 20
1.7.2 Energy Recovery Time 21
1.7.3 Sustainability 23
1.8 Modern Electronic Controls of Power Systems 26
References 27
2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 28
2.1. Introduction 28
2.2. State of a Thermodynamic System 29
2.3. Fundamental Laws and Principles 36
2.3.1 Example in a Nutshell 37
2.3.2 Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant 40
2.3.3 Rankine Cycle for Power Plants 41
2.3.4 Brayton Cycle for Power Plants 44
2.3.5 Energy and Power 46
2.4 Examples of Energy Balance 47
2.4.1 Simple Residential Energy Balance 47
2.4.2 Refrigerator Energy Balance 48
2.4.3 Energy Balance for a Water Heater 49
2.4.4 Rock Bed Energy Balance 51
2.4.5 Array of Solar Collectors 51
2.4.6 Heat Pump 52
2.4.7 Heat Transfer Analysis 53
2.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 54
References 56
3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 57
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Determination of the Useful Power 58
3.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements 60
3.3.1 Simple Measurement of Elevation 60
3.3.2 Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement 60
3.3.3 Specification of Pipe Losses 62
3.3.4 Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow 63
3.3.5 Civil Works 67
3.4 Generating Unit 67
3.4.1 Regulation Systems 67
3.4.2 Butterfly Valves 68
3.5 Waterwheels 68
3.6 Turbines 70
3.6.1 Pelton Turbine 71
3.6.2 Francis Turbine 74
3.6.3 Michel–Banki Turbine 77
3.6.4 Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine 79
3.6.5 Deriaz Turbines 80
3.6.6 Water Pumps Working as Turbines 80
3.6.7 Specification of Hydro Turbines 81
References 82
4 WIND POWER PLANTS 84
4.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Appropriate Location 85
4.2.1 Evaluation of Wind Intensity 85
4.2.2 Topography 93
4.2.3 Purpose of the Energy Generated 95
4.2.4 Means of Access 95
4.3 Wind Power 95
4.4 General Classification of Wind Turbines 97
4.4.1 Rotor Turbines 99
4.4.2 Multiple-Blade Turbines 99
4.4.3 Drag Turbines (Savonius) 100
4.4.4 Lifting Turbines 101
4.4.5 System TARP–WARP 102
4.4.6 Accessories 103
4.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy 104
4.6 Analysis of Small Generating Systems 107
References 110
5 THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS 112
5.1 Introduction 112
5.2 Water Heating by Solar Energy 112
5.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs 115
5.4 Heating Domestic Water 118
5.5 Thermosolar Energy 119
5.5.1 Parabolic Trough 120
5.5.2 Parabolic Dish 122
5.5.3 Solar Power Tower 124
5.5.4 Production of Hydrogen 125
5.6 Economical Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 126
References 127
CONTENTS ix6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS 129
6.1 Introduction 129
6.2 Solar Energy 130
6.3 Generation of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 132
6.4 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature 135
6.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 137
6.6 Equivalent Models and Parameters for Photovoltaic Panels 139
6.6.1 Dark-Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel 140
6.6.2 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series 142
6.6.3 Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 144
6.7 Photovoltaic Systems 145
6.7.1 Illumination Area 146
6.7.2 Solar Modules and Panels 146
6.7.3 Aluminum Structures 146
6.7.4 Load Controller 148
6.7.5 Battery Bank 148
6.8 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy 149
6.8.1 Residential and Public Illumination 149
6.8.2 Stroboscopic Signaling 150
6.8.3 Electric Fence 150
6.8.4 Telecommunications 151
6.8.5 Water Supply and Micro-Irrigation Systems 151
6.8.6 Control of Plagues and Conservation of
Food and Medicine 153
6.8.7 Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis 154
6.8.8 Electric Power Supply 155
6.8.9 Security and Alarm Systems 156
6.9 Economical Analysis of Solar Energy 156
References 157
7 POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS 159
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 The Fuel Cell 160
7.3 Commercial Technologies for Generation of Electricity 162
7.4 Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking 169
7.4.1 Low- and High-Temperature Fuel Cells 169
7.4.2 Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 170
x CONTENTS7.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells 171
7.6 Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 173
7.7 Water, Air, and Heat Management 175
7.8 Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells 176
7.8.1 Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power 176
7.8.2 Amount of Thermal Energy Necessary 178
7.9 Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions 180
7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells 181
7.11 Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit 182
7.12 Practical Determination of the Equivalent Model Parameters 188
7.12.1 Example of Determination of FC Parameters 191
7.13 Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel 194
7.14 Future Perspectives 195
References 196
8 BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS 198
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 Fuel from Biomass 202
8.3 Biogas 204
8.4 Biomass for Biogas 205
8.5 Biological Formation of Biogas 206
8.6 Factors Affecting Biodigestion 207
8.7 Characteristics of Biodigesters 209
8.8 Construction of Biodigester 210
8.8.1 Sizing a Biodigester 211
8.9 Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 211
References 214
9 MICROTURBINES 215
9.1 Introduction 215
9.2 Princples of Operation 217
9.3 Microturbine Fuel 219
9.4 Control of Microturbines 220
9.4.1 Mechanical-Side Structure 220
9.4.2 Electrical-Side Structure 222
9.4.3 Control-Side Structure 224
CONTENTS xi9.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines 228
9.6 Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 230
References 231
10 INDUCTION GENERATORS 233
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Principles of Operation 234
10.3 Representation of Steady-State Operation 236
10.4 Power and Losses Generated 237
10.5 Self-Excited Induction Generator 240
10.6 Magnetizing Curves and Self-Excitation 242
10.7 Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process 243
10.8 Interconnected and Stand-Alone Operation 246
10.9 Speed and Voltage Control 248
10.9.1 Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls 249
10.9.2 Load Control Versus Source Control
for Induction Generators 250
10.9.3 The Danish Concept 254
10.9.4 Variable-Speed Grid Connection 255
10.9.5 Control by the Load Versus Control by
the Source 256
10.10 Economical Aspects 258
References 259
11 STORAGE SYSTEMS 262
11.1 Introduction 262
11.2 Energy Storage Parameters 265
11.3 Lead–Acid Batteries 268
11.3.1 Constructional Features 268
11.3.2 Battery Charge–Discharge Cycles 269
11.3.3 Operating Limits and Parameters 271
11.3.4 Maintenance of Lead–Acid Batteries 273
11.3.5 Sizing Lead–Acid Batteries for DG Applications 273
11.4 Ultracapacitors 276
11.4.1 Double-Layer Ultracapacitors 277
11.4.2 High-Energy Ultracapacitors 278
11.4.3 Applications of Ultracapacitors 279
xii CONTENTS11.5 Flywheels 282
11.5.1 Advanced Performance of Flywheels 282
11.5.2 Applications of Flywheels 282
11.5.3 Design Strategies 284
11.6 Superconducting Magnetic Storage System 286
11.6.1 SMES System Capabilities 287
11.6.2 Developments in SMES Systems 288
11.7 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage 290
11.7.1 Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems 291
11.8 Compressed Air Energy Storage 292
11.9 Storage Heat 294
11.10 Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 295
References 299
12 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
OF ENERGY 301
12.1 Introduction 301
12.2 Principles of Power Injection 302
12.2.1 Converting Technologies 302
12.2.2 Power Converters for Power Injection
into the Grid 304
12.2.3 Power Flow 306
12.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power
Control Approach 309
12.4 Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources 312
12.4.1 DC-Link Integration 315
12.4.2 AC-Link Integration 316
12.4.3 HFAC-Link Integration 317
12.5 Islanding and Interconnection Control 320
12.6 DG Control and Power Injection 325
References 331
13 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 333
13.1 Introduction 333
13.2 The Purpose of Distributed Generation 335
13.3 Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation 338
13.4 Demand-Side Management 339
13.5 Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 340
CONTENTS xiii13.5.1 DG Influence on Power and Energy
Losses 342
13.5.2 Estimation of DG Influence on Power
Losses of Subtransmission Systems 346
13.5.3 Equivalent of Subtransmission Systems
Using Experimental Design 348
13.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis 350
References 352
14 INTERCONNECTION OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES WITH THE GRID 354
Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard DeBlasio,
and N. Richard Friedman
14.1 Introduction 354
14.2 Interconnection Technologies 357
14.2.1 Synchronous Interconnection 357
14.2.2 Induction Interconnection 358
14.2.3 Inverter Interconnection 359
14.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection 359
14.3.1 IEEE 1547 360
14.3.2 National Electrical Code 361
14.3.3 UL Standards 362
14.4 Interconnection Considerations 364
14.4.1 Voltage Regulation 364
14.4.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding 365
14.4.3 Synchronization 365
14.4.4 Isolation 365
14.4.5 Response to Voltage Disturbance 366
14.4.6 Response to Frequency Disturbance 367
14.4.7 Disconnection for Faults 368
14.4.8 Loss of Synchronism 369
14.4.9 Feeder Reclosing Coordination 369
14.4.10 DC Injection 370
14.4.11 Voltage Flicker 371
14.4.12 Harmonics 371
14.4.13 Unintentional Islanding Protection 373
14.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources 373
14.5.1 Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction 375
xiv CONTENTS14.5.2 Small Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System 375
References 378
15 MICROPOWER SYSTEM MODELING WITH HOMER 379
Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal
15.1 Introduction 379
15.2 Simulation 381
15.3 Optimization 385
15.4 Sensitivity Analysis 388
15.4.1 Dealing with Uncertainty 389
15.4.2 Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 391
15.5 Physical Modeling 393
15.5.1 Loads 393
15.5.2 Resources 395
15.5.3 Components 397
15.5.4 System Dispatch 408
15.6 Economic Modeling 414
References 416
Glossary 416
APPENDIX A: DIESEL POWER PLANTS 419
A.1 Introduction 419
A.2 Diesel Engine 420
A.3 Principal Components of a Diesel Engine 421
A.3.1 Fixed Parts 421
A.3.2 Moving Parts 421
A.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 422
A.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 422
A.4.1 Diesel Cycle 422
A.4.2 Combustion Process 424
A.5 Diesel Engine Cycle 425
A.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 425
A.5.2 Classification of Diesel Engines 426
A.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 427
A.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by
Diesel Engines 427
References 429
CONTENTS xvAPPENDIX B: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 431
B.1 Introduction 431
B.2 Geothermal as a Source of Energy 432
B.2.1 Geothermal Economics 434
B.2.2 Geothermal Electricity 435
B.2.3 Geothermal/Ground Source Heat Pumps 436
References 437
APPENDIX C: THE STIRLING ENGINE 438
C.1 Introduction 438
C.2 Stirling Cycle 439
C.3 Displacer Stirling Engine 442
C.4 Two-Piston Stirling Engine 444
References 446
INDEX 447 英文原版的，看不懂呀，还是谢谢。 谢谢，英文的，看起来比较费劲。 英文，有些恐怖呀！ 好像看啊，就是看不到。地方地方 地方法大幅度大幅度飞 地方飞好想看啊，hao 谢谢，正需要这方面的资料
