HISTORY OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

liuqingrui · 发表于 2016-2-2 13:30:04

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In 1878, Thomas A. Edison began work on the electric light and formulated the concept of a centrally located power station with distributed lighting serving a surrounding area. He perfected his light by October 1879, and the opening of his historic Pearl Street Station in New York City on September 4, 1882, marked the beginning of the electric utility industry (see Figure 1.1).
At Pearl Street, dc generators, then called dynamos, were driven by steam engines to supply an initial load of 30 kW for 110-V incandescent lighting to 59 customers in a one-square-mile area. From this beginning in 1882 through 1972, the electric utility industry grew at a remarkable pace—a growth based on continuous reductions in the price of electricity due primarily to echnological acomplishment and creative engineering.

The introduction of the practical dc motor by Sprague Electric, as well as the growth of incandescent lighting, promoted the expansion of Edison’s dc systems. The development of three-wire 220-V dc systems allowed load to increase somewhat, but as transmission distances and loads continued to increase, voltage problems were encountered. These limitations of maximum distance and load were overcome in 1885 by William Stanley’s development of a commercially practical transformer. Stanley installed an ac distribution system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to supply 150 lamps. With the transformer, the ability to transmit power at high voltage with corresponding lower current and lower line-voltage drops made ac more attractive than dc. The first single-phase ac line in the United States operated in 1889 in Oregon, between Oregon City and Portland—21 km at 4 kV.

The growth of ac systems was further encouraged in 1888 when Nikola Tesla presented a paper at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers describing two-phase induction and synchronous motors, which made evident the advantages of polyphase versus single-phase systems. The first threephase line in Germany became operational in 1891, transmitting power 179 km
at 12 kV. The first three-phase line in the United States (in California) became operational in 1893, transmitting power 12 km at 2.3 kV. The three-phase induction motor conceived by Tesla went on to become the workhorse of the industry.

In the same year that Edison’s steam-driven generators were inaugurated, a waterwheel-driven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, most electric energy has been generated in steam-powered and in waterpowered (called hydro) turbine plants. Today, steam turbines account for more than 85% of U.S. electric energy generation, whereas hydro turbines account for about 6%. Gas turbines are used in some cases to meet peak loads. Also, the addition of wind turbines into the bulk power system is expected to grow considerably in the near future.

Steam plants are fueled primarily by coal, gas, oil, and uranium. Of these, coal is the most widely used fuel in the United States due to its abundance in the country. Although many of these coal-fueled power plants were converted to oil during the early 1970s, that trend has been reversed back to coal since the 1973–74 oil embargo, which caused an oil shortage and created
a national desire to reduce dependency on foreign oil. In 2008, approximately 48% of electricity in the United States was generated from coal [2]. In 1957, nuclear units with 90-MW steam-turbine capacity, fueled by uranium, were installed, and today nuclear units with 1312-MW steamturbine capacity are in service. In 2008, approximately 20% of electricity in the United States was generated from uranium from 104 nuclear power plants. However, the growth of nuclear capacity in the United States has
been halted by rising construction costs, licensing delays, and public opinion. Although there are no emissions associated with nuclear power generation, there are safety issues and environmental issues, such as the disposal of used nuclear fuel and the impact of heated cooling-tower water on aquatic habitats. Future technologies for nuclear power are concentrated on safety and
environmental issues [2, 3].

Starting in the 1990s, the choice of fuel for new power plants in the United States has been natural gas due to its availability and low cost as well as the higher e‰ciency, lower emissions, shorter construction-lead times, safety, and lack of controversy associated with power plants that use natural gas. Natural gas is used to generate electricity by the following processes:
(1) gas combustion turbines use natural gas directly to fire the turbine;
(2) steam turbines burn natural gas to create steam in a boiler, which is then run through the steam turbine;
(3) combined cycle units use a gas combustion turbine by burning natural gas, and the hot exhaust gases from the combustion turbine are used to boil water that operates a steam turbine; and
(4) fuel cells powered by natural gas generate electricity using electrochemical reactions by passing streams of natural gas and oxidants over electrodes that are separated by an electrolyte. In 2008, approximately 21% of electricity in
the United States was generated from natural gas [2, 3].

In 2008, in the United States, approximately 9% of electricity was generated by renewable sources and 1% by oil [2, 3]. Renewable sources include conventional hydroelectric (water power), geothermal, wood, wood waste, all municipal waste, landfill gas, other biomass, solar, and wind power. Renewable sources of energy cannot be ignored, but they are not expected to supply a large percentage of the world’s future energy needs. On the other hand, nuclear fusion energy just may. Substantial research e¤orts have shown nuclear fusion energy to be a promising technology for producing safe, pollution-free, and economical electric energy later in the 21st century and beyond. The fuel consumed in a nuclear fusion reaction is deuterium, of which a virtually inexhaustible supply is present in seawater.

The early ac systems operated at various frequencies including 25, 50, 60, and 133 Hz. In 1891, it was proposed that 60 Hz be the standard frequency in the United States. In 1893, 25-Hz systems were introduced with the synchronous converter. However, these systems were used primarily for railroad electrification (and many are now retired) because they had the disadvantage of causing incandescent lights to flicker. In California, the Los Angeles Department of Power and Water operated at 50 Hz, but converted
to 60 Hz when power from the Hoover Dam became operational in 1937. In 1949, Southern California Edison also converted from 50 to 60 Hz. Today, the two standard frequencies for generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power in the world are 60 Hz (in the United States, Canada, Japan, Brazil) and 50 Hz (in Europe, the former Soviet republics, South America except Brazil, and India). The advantage of 60-Hz systems is that generators, motors, and transformers in these systems are generally smaller than 50-Hz equipment with the same ratings. The advantage of 50-Hz systems is that transmission lines and transformers have smaller reactances at 50 Hz than at 60 Hz.
As shown in Figure 1.2, the rate of growth of electric energy in the United States was approximately 7% per year from 1902 to 1972. This corresponds to a doubling of electric energy consumption every 10 years over the 70-year period. In other words, every 10 years the industry installed a new electric system equal in energy-producing capacity to the total of what it had built since the industry began. The annual growth rate slowed after the oil embargo of 1973–74. Kilowatt-hour consumption in the United States increased by 3.4% per year from 1972 to 1980, and by 2.1% per year from 1980 to 2008.

Along with increases in load growth, there have been continuing increases in the size of generating units (Table 1.1). The principal incentive to build larger units has been economy of scale—that is, a reduction in installed cost per kilowatt of capacity for larger units. However, there have also been steady improvements in generation e‰ciency. For example, in 1934 the
average heat rate for steam generation in the U.S. electric industry was 17,950 BTU/kWh, which corresponds to 19% e‰ciency. By 1991, the average heat rate was 10,367 BTU/kWh, which corresponds to 33% e‰ciency. These improvements in thermal e‰ciency due to increases in unit size and in steam temperature and pressure, as well as to the use of steam reheat, have resulted in savings in fuel costs and overall operating costs.

There have been continuing increases, too, in transmission voltages (Table 1.2). From Edison’s 220-V three-wire dc grid to 4-kV single-phase and 2.3-kV three-phase transmission, ac transmission voltages in the United States have risen progressively to 150, 230, 345, 500, and now 765 kV. And ultra-high voltages (UHV) above 1000 kV are now being studied. The incentives for increasing transmission voltages have been: (1) increases in transmission distance and transmission capacity, (2) smaller line-voltage
drops, (3) reduced line losses, (4) reduced right-of-way requirements per MW transfer, and (5) lower capital and operating costs of transmission. Today, one 765-kV three-phase line can transmit thousands of megawatts over hundreds of kilometers.
The technological developments that have occurred in conjunction with ac transmission, including developments in insulation, protection, and control, are in themselves important. The following examples are noteworthy:
1. The suspension insulator
2. The high-speed relay system, currently capable of detecting shortcircuit currents within one cycle (0.017 s)
3. High-speed, extra-high-voltage (EHV) circuit breakers, capable of interrupting up to 63-kA three-phase short-circuit currents within two cycles (0.033 s)
4. High-speed reclosure of EHV lines, which enables automatic return to service within a fraction of a second after a fault has been cleared
5. The EHV surge arrester, which provides protection against transient overvoltages due to lightning strikes and line-switching operations
6. Power-line carrier, microwave, and fiber optics as communication mechanisms for protecting, controlling, and metering transmission lines
7. The principle of insulation coordination applied to the design of an entire transmission system
8. Energy control centers with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and with automatic generation control (AGC) for
centralized computer monitoring and control of generation, transmission, and distribution
9. Automated distribution features, including advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), reclosers and remotely controlled sectionalizing switches with fault-indicating capability, along with automated mapping/facilities management (AM/FM) and geographic information systems (GIS) for quick isolation and identification of outages and for rapid restoration of customer services
10. Digital relays capable of circuit breaker control, data logging, fault locating, self-checking, fault analysis, remote query, and relay event monitoring/recording.

In 1954, the first modern high-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission line was put into operation in Sweden between Vastervik and the island of Gotland in the Baltic sea; it operated at 100 kV for a distance of 100 km. The first HVDC line in the United States was the G400-kV (now G500 kV), 1360-km Pacific Intertie line installed between Oregon and California in 1970. As of 2008, seven other HVDC lines up to 500 kV and eleven back-to-back ac-dc links had been installed in the United States, and a total of 57 HVDC lines up to 600 kV had been installed worldwide [4].

For an HVDC line embedded in an ac system, solid-state converters at both ends of the dc line operate as rectifiers and inverters. Since the cost of anHVDC transmission line is less than that of an ac line with the same capacity, the additional cost of converters for dc transmission is o¤set when the line is long enough. Studies have shown that overhead HVDC transmission is
economical in the United States for transmission distances longer than about 600 km. However, HVDC also has the advantage that it may be the only feasible method to:
1. interconnect two asynchronous networks;
2. utilize long underground or underwater cable circuits;
3. bypass network congestion;
4. reduce fault currents;
5. share utility rights-of-way without degrading reliability; and
6. mitigate environmental concerns [5].

In the United States, electric utilities grew first as isolated systems, with new ones continuously starting up throughout the country. Gradually, however,neighboring electric utilities began to interconnect, to operate in parallel. This improved both reliability and economy. Figure 1.3 shows major 230-kV and higher-voltage, interconnected transmission in the United States in 2000. An interconnected system has many advantages. An interconnected utility can draw upon another’s rotating generator reserves during a time of need (such as a sudden generator outage or load increase), thereby maintaining continuity of service, increasing reliability, and reducing the total number of generators that need to be kept running under no-load conditions. Also, interconnected utilities can schedule power transfers during normal periods to take advantage of energy-cost di¤erences in respective areas, load diversity, time zone di¤erences, and seasonal conditions. For example, utilities whose generation is primarily hydro can supply low-cost power during high-water periods in spring/summer, and can receive power from the interconnection during low-water periods in fall/winter. Interconnections also allow shared ownership of larger, more e‰-
cient generating units.

While sharing the benefits of interconnected operation, each utility is obligated to help neighbors who are in trouble, to maintain scheduled intertie transfers during normal periods, and to participate in system frequency regulation.

In addition to the benefits/obligations of interconnected operation, there are disadvantages. Interconnections, for example, have increased fault currents that occur during short circuits, thus requiring the use of circuit breakers with higher interrupting capability. Furthermore, although overall system reliability and economy have improved dramatically through interconnection, there is a remote possibility that an initial disturbance may lead to a regional blackout, such as the one that occurred in August 2003 in the northeastern United States and Canada.

liuqingrui · 发表于 2016-2-2 13:30:53

欢迎有兴趣的尝试翻译一下::smile::

zmamrl · 发表于 2018-7-19 08:29:32

学习啦。。。

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